In Brief
- Pennsylvania offers accredited MSN nurse educator programs with annual tuition ranging from roughly $12,500 to over $27,500.
- BLS data show postsecondary nursing instructors nationally earned a median salary of $80,780 as of 2024.
- The CNE certification from the National League for Nursing is increasingly expected by Pennsylvania nursing schools.
- Most PA programs require a 3.0 undergraduate GPA, an active RN license, and at least one year of clinical experience.
Pennsylvania nursing schools project hundreds of unfilled faculty positions over the next decade, even as undergraduate nursing enrollment continues to climb. That gap, driven by retirements and the salary spread between clinical practice and academia, has reshaped how RNs approach the move into teaching. For a closer look at the forces behind this trend, see our analysis of nurse educator shortage causes and data.
Seven Pennsylvania institutions offer MSN nurse educator pathways with meaningful variation: 37-credit online programs at Robert Morris and Millersville, hybrid coursework at Villanova with 46 credits, and post-master's certificates at Pitt and Jefferson for nurses already holding a graduate degree. Tuition, format, and clinical hour requirements differ sharply.
The practical tension for most working RNs is reconciling shift schedules with practicum hours, which range from 90 to 270 across these programs.
Best Nurse Educator Programs in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania is home to a diverse mix of nurse educator programs spanning public research universities, private institutions, and PASSHE schools, giving RNs multiple pathways into teaching roles. Whether you want a full MSN, a post-master's certificate, or a DNP with an education focus, the programs below offer accredited, flexible options designed for working nurses ready to shape the next generation of clinicians.
- Graduate tuition and net price
- Institutional graduation and retention rates
- Program accreditation and clinical hours
- Delivery format flexibility
- Faculty ratio and student support
- NCES-IPEDS federal institutional data — nces.ed.gov
- College Scorecard graduate earnings — collegescorecard.ed.gov
- Internal program database
- Independent program research
- #1
Robert Morris University
Moon Township, PA · ~$23,000/yr (est.)
Best for: Simulation-focused online learners near Pittsburgh
Robert Morris University delivers a fully online, CCNE-accredited M.S.N. in Nursing Education from its Moon Township campus near Pittsburgh. The 37-credit program can be completed in about two years and includes a simulation concentration for nurses interested in high-fidelity teaching environments. Applicants whose GPA falls below the preferred 2.5 minimum may still be considered through an admission interview, an advantage for experienced clinicians with strong practice backgrounds. Graduate tuition is $20,140 per year, with an average net price of $23,003 and an institution-wide graduation rate of 65.7%.
View program
- 37-credit fully online program, completable in two years
- CCNE accredited with rolling admissions
- Simulation concentration develops high-fidelity teaching skills
- Clinical practicum experiences in educator settings
- Current RN license required; 2.5 GPA preferred
- Interdisciplinary curriculum design coursework included
- Admission interview option for applicants below GPA threshold
- #2
Messiah University
Mechanicsburg, PA · $25,000 – $30,000/yr
Best for: Value-minded nurses seeking multiple degree levels
Messiah University, a faith-based institution in Mechanicsburg, offers one of the most comprehensive nurse educator pathways in Pennsylvania: an MSN, a DNP, and a post-master's certificate, all delivered fully online. The MSN totals roughly $32,000 at a locked $800-per-credit rate with no hidden fees, and graduates are prepared for the NLN Certified Nurse Educator exam. Messiah's institution-wide graduation rate stands at 75%, and the 12:1 student-to-faculty ratio supports personalized mentorship throughout the program.
View 3 programs
- 39-credit online program with accelerated and part-time tracks
- $800 per credit with locked tuition and no extra fees
- CCNE accredited; prepares for NLN CNE exam
- Asynchronous classes in 6- to 16-week sessions
- Deferred billing supports employer tuition reimbursement
- No entrance exam required; $0 application fee
- Post-master's online doctorate spanning 37-49 credits
- $960 per credit with no-fee tuition structure
- Completable in approximately two years
- Scholarly project focused on education practice improvement
- Year-round rolling admissions with flexible start dates
- Federal financial aid eligible; 3.0 GPA minimum
- Targeted certificate for experienced MSN- or DNP-prepared nurses
- Focused coursework in curriculum design and educational leadership
- Fully online format with no campus visits
- Designed as a career advancement pathway into faculty roles
- Builds on existing graduate credentials efficiently
- Prepares nurses for academic and clinical teaching roles
- #3
Villanova University
Villanova, PA · $40,000 – $45,000/yr
Best for: Future PhD scholars in southeastern Pennsylvania
Villanova University pairs elite institutional outcomes (a 91.9% graduation rate and 95% retention rate) with a hybrid MSN Nursing Education track and a post-master's Nurse Educator Certificate. The 33-credit MSN includes an on-campus summer simulation intensive and a four-credit precepted practicum, and it can fast-track progression into Villanova's PhD nursing program. Graduate tuition is $22,335 per year, and the net price averages $43,756, reflecting the investment in a top-tier private university near Philadelphia.
View 2 programs
- 33-credit hybrid program spanning six semesters
- On-campus simulation intensive plus online coursework
- Four-credit Nurse Educator Practicum with expert preceptors
- Synchronous and asynchronous course options available
- Prepares for academic and clinical teaching positions
- Can expedite entry into Villanova's PhD nursing program
- Population-focused clinical track options
- 12-credit post-master's program in online and hybrid formats
- Completable in as little as one year (five-year maximum)
- Core courses in curriculum development and instructional design
- Open to master's- and doctoral-prepared nurses
- Elective courses in advanced teaching strategies
- Synchronous online format for real-time faculty interaction
- #4
Pennsylvania State University
University Park, PA · ~$33,000/yr (est.)
Penn State's World Campus offers a 36-credit online M.S.N. with a Nurse Educator concentration alongside a nine-credit Graduate Certificate, both CCNE-accredited. The MSN requires 270 practicum hours and a capstone project, while the certificate can be completed without any campus visits, making it especially practical for RNs in rural or remote parts of the state. In-state graduate tuition is $26,034 per year (out-of-state $45,574), with an institution-wide graduation rate of 86.1%.
View 2 programs
- 36-credit online program via Penn State World Campus
- CCNE accredited with part-time and full-time schedules
- 270 practicum hours in clinical or academic settings
- Capstone project integrating theory and practice
- Courses in advanced health assessment and pharmacology
- 3.3 GPA minimum; two letters of recommendation required
- Evidence-based teaching strategies throughout curriculum
- Nine-credit online certificate with no campus visits
- Optional four-credit practicum for hands-on teaching experience
- Requires BSN and minimum 3.0 undergraduate GPA
- Ideal for rural PA nurses seeking educator credentials
- Covers curriculum design, assessment, and instructional techniques
- Can be completed alongside full-time clinical employment
- #5
University of Pittsburgh-Pittsburgh
Pittsburgh, PA · $30,000/yr
The University of Pittsburgh's School of Nursing offers a focused 15-credit Post-Professional Certificate in Nursing Education designed for nurses who already hold a master's or doctoral degree. The hybrid program blends didactic coursework with two field-based preceptorships totaling 90 clinical hours, typically arranged through Pittsburgh-area health systems and academic institutions. In-state tuition runs $27,580 per year (out-of-state $46,786), and Pitt's 85.5% institution-wide graduation rate reflects strong student support across programs.
View program
- 15-credit hybrid program completable in one year
- $850 per credit; CCNE accredited
- Two field-based preceptorships with 90 clinical hours
- Rolling admissions with fall, spring, and summer starts
- Prepares for the NLN Certified Nurse Educator exam
- Curriculum covers instructional design and informatics
- Full-time and part-time scheduling options available
- #6
Millersville University of Pennsylvania
Millersville, PA · $11,000 – $23,000/yr
As a PASSHE institution, Millersville University delivers some of the most affordable nurse educator preparation in Pennsylvania, with graduate tuition at $12,479 per year for in-state students and $17,339 for out-of-state students. The online MSN in Nursing Education spans 37 credits and can be finished in as few as 12 months through seven-week course terms, while the 15-credit Graduate Certificate targets MSN-prepared nurses who want to add formal educator credentials quickly. Both are NLN CNEA-accredited. The institution-wide graduation rate is 57.6%.
View 2 programs
- 37-credit online program completable in 12 months
- $633 per credit; total tuition approximately $23,421
- NLN CNEA accredited with five start dates per year
- 168 practicum hours with in-person internship experiences
- Prepares for NLN CNE certification exams
- Synchronous and asynchronous course options
- Requires BSN, active RN license, and 3.0 GPA
- 15-credit online certificate completable in 10 months
- Total tuition approximately $9,495 in-state
- Small cohort-based structure for personalized attention
- 168 clinical hours tailored to student learning goals
- Prepares for CNE and CNEcl certification
- No campus visits required; 100% online coursework
- #7
Thomas Jefferson University
Philadelphia, PA · $29,000/yr
Thomas Jefferson University leverages its position as a leading Philadelphia academic health center to offer an online MSN in Nursing Education focused specifically on academic nursing faculty roles, plus a nine-credit Advanced Certificate for nurses who want a shorter credential. Both programs are NLN-accredited and include 224 clinical hours through preceptor-facilitated practicums arranged largely within southeastern Pennsylvania's health systems and universities. Graduate tuition is $24,528 per year, with a net price of $28,928 and an institution-wide graduation rate of 68.6%.
View 2 programs
- Online asynchronous program completable in two to three years
- NLN accredited; prepares for NLN-CNE certification
- 224 clinical hours via two preceptor-facilitated practicums
- Dedicated Online Education and Instructional Design course
- Full-time and part-time options for working nurses
- Focus on curriculum design, assessment, and faculty development
- Military-friendly program with Center City campus option
- Nine-credit online certificate across three courses
- 224 clinical hours with preceptor-facilitated practicums
- NLN competency-based curriculum framework
- Credits transfer toward Jefferson MSN programs
- Requires minimum bachelor's degree and active RN license
- Stackable pathway from certificate to full graduate degree
How to Become a Nurse Educator in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania requires nursing faculty to hold a graduate degree in nursing and maintain a current RN license. While an MSN opens the door to many teaching roles, doctoral preparation is the standard for tenure-track university positions. Here is the typical credentialing sequence from bedside nurse to nurse educator.
Nurse Educator Costs and ROI at Pennsylvania Schools
Tuition for nurse educator programs in Pennsylvania ranges from roughly $12,500 to over $27,500 per year, depending on the institution and residency status. The table below compares graduate tuition rates, institution-wide average net price, median graduate debt, and median earnings ten years after enrollment. Note that net price reflects an institution-wide average across all programs and student populations, not a figure specific to the nursing education track. Program-level earnings after completion are not yet available for these schools, so the earnings column shows the broader institutional median reported by College Scorecard.
| School | In-State Tuition | Out-of-State Tuition | Avg. Net Price (Institution-Wide) | Median Graduate Debt | Median Earnings (10 Yr) | Program Format |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Millersville University of Pennsylvania | $12,479 | $17,339 | $20,787 | $23,507 | $55,246 | Online |
| Messiah University | $14,040 | $14,040 | $26,502 | $25,621 | $54,064 | Online |
| Robert Morris University | $20,140 | $20,140 | $23,003 | $26,950 | $62,105 | Online |
| Villanova University | $22,335 | $22,335 | $43,756 | $25,874 | $100,423 | Hybrid |
| Thomas Jefferson University | $24,528 | $24,528 | $28,928 | $14,744 | $77,449 | Online |
| Pennsylvania State University | $26,034 | $45,574 | $32,875 | $25,000 | $63,435 | Online |
| University of Pittsburgh | $27,580 | $46,786 | $30,434 | $24,250 | $66,125 | Hybrid |
Questions to Ask Yourself
Online vs. On-Campus Nurse Educator Programs in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania offers nurse educator programs in fully online, hybrid, and on-campus formats, so you can match your degree path to your schedule and learning preferences. If you are a working RN juggling 12-hour shifts, the delivery format you choose can make or break your ability to finish. Here is how the main options stack up.
Pros
- Fully online programs at Robert Morris, Messiah, Penn State, Millersville, and Thomas Jefferson let you complete asynchronous coursework around any shift schedule.
- Online students can arrange clinical practica at hospitals or colleges near home, eliminating the need to relocate or commute to a distant campus.
- Hybrid models, such as those at Villanova and the University of Pittsburgh, combine online coursework with periodic on-campus intensives for hands-on simulation and teaching labs.
- On-campus or hybrid intensives give you direct mentorship from faculty and the chance to complete teaching practica within the host university's own nursing program.
- In-person cohort weekends at hybrid programs build professional networks with faculty and peers that often lead to job referrals in Pennsylvania's academic nursing community.
- Millersville's online MSN can be completed in as few as 12 months, while Messiah's locked tuition rate protects you from cost increases if you study part-time over two years.
Cons
- Fully online programs require strong self-discipline; without regular face-to-face accountability, some students struggle to stay on track alongside a demanding clinical career.
- On-campus or hybrid formats may require travel to cities like Villanova or Pittsburgh for intensive weekends, adding lodging and transportation costs for nurses who live in rural PA.
- Online students must independently identify and secure qualified preceptors for clinical practica, which can be challenging in areas with limited academic nursing sites.
- Hybrid programs sometimes lock you into specific intensive dates months in advance, making it harder to swap shifts or accommodate last-minute schedule changes at your hospital.
- In-person programs generally offer fewer start dates per year than their online counterparts, potentially delaying your enrollment by a semester or more.
Pennsylvania Nurse Educator Admission Requirements
Pennsylvania MSN nurse educator programs set clear, consistent expectations across the state, and knowing them before you apply saves you from surprises.
GPA, Licensure, and Clinical Experience
A minimum undergraduate GPA of 3.0 is the standard benchmark at programs including Drexel University, Millersville University, and Indiana University of Pennsylvania (IUP).123 Some programs will consider applicants who fall slightly below that threshold if other parts of the application are strong, but 3.0 is the practical floor for most.
An active, unencumbered RN license is non-negotiable. Every PA program reviewed here requires it, and you will typically need to provide documentation of licensure before matriculation if not at the time of application.4
Clinical experience requirements vary more than GPA floors do. Drexel, for instance, does not list a minimum years-of-practice requirement for its MSN nurse educator track, while other programs in the state commonly prefer one to two years of clinical nursing experience.1 Check each school's current admissions page, because this is one requirement that shifts.
GRE Waivers Are Now the Norm
The GRE has largely disappeared from PA nurse educator admission checklists. Drexel, Penn State, Millersville, and IUP all offer GRE waivers as of 2026.1423 A small number of programs across the country still require it, but in Pennsylvania the test is rarely a barrier. If standardized testing was a concern keeping you from applying, it almost certainly should not be.
Prerequisite Courses and Degree Pathways
Most PA programs require undergraduate-level statistics before you begin graduate coursework. Nursing research and health assessment are additional prerequisites at schools like Millersville and IUP.23 If your BSN transcript has gaps, these courses are typically available through community colleges or online.
A BSN is the standard entry point. Drexel and Penn State both specify a BSN as the prerequisite degree.14 That said, some programs nationally offer ADN-to-MSN bridge pathways, and a handful of PA schools may accommodate this route with additional foundational coursework. Confirm directly with any program if you hold an ADN. For a broader look at MSN nurse educator degree options, including online formats, the program landscape extends well beyond Pennsylvania.
Teaching Practicum and Clinical Hours
The MSN nurse educator curriculum is not purely academic. Most accredited programs build in a supervised teaching practicum where you develop and deliver instruction under faculty oversight. If you are curious about what that hands-on work looks like in practice, a glimpse at a nurse educator day can help set expectations. Across MSN nurse educator programs broadly, the supervised clinical and practicum component typically totals somewhere in the range of 500 to 600 hours by graduation, though program structures differ. Ask each school specifically how those hours are arranged, whether in a clinical setting, a classroom, or a simulation lab, so you can plan around your current work schedule.
Nurse Educator Salary and Job Outlook in Pennsylvania
Demand for qualified nursing faculty continues to outpace supply across Pennsylvania, making this an unusually strong moment to enter the field with the right credentials.
What the National Numbers Tell Us
The most recent Bureau of Labor Statistics data (2023 release) puts the national median annual wage for postsecondary nursing instructors and teachers at $80,780.1 The full wage distribution gives a clearer picture of the range you might expect:
- 10th percentile: $49,120
- 25th percentile: $63,050
- 50th percentile (median): $80,780
- 75th percentile: $103,370
- 90th percentile: $130,320
These are national figures. State and metro-level wages can differ meaningfully from this benchmark, sometimes higher and sometimes lower depending on institution type, region, and whether the role is full-time or adjunct. For a deeper breakdown, see our analysis of highest paid nurse educators by state.
Pennsylvania Metro Data
For the Wilkes-Barre-Hazleton metro area, BLS reported a mean annual wage of $79,310 for postsecondary nursing instructors in 2023, with roughly 200 educators employed in that market.2 That figure sits just under the national median, which is fairly typical for a smaller regional market where cost of living is lower than in major urban centers.
BLS does not currently publish detailed metro-level wage estimates for Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, Harrisburg, or Scranton for this specific occupation, likely because sample sizes fall below the threshold required for reliable disclosure. This does not mean those markets are smaller in absolute terms; it reflects a data reporting limitation rather than a lack of employment activity.
How Pennsylvania Fits Into the Regional Picture
Compared to neighboring states, Pennsylvania generally tracks close to the national median for nursing faculty compensation. New York and New Jersey tend to report higher wages, partly driven by elevated costs of living in metro New York City. Maryland also skews upward. Ohio and West Virginia tend to come in lower. Pennsylvania sits in a reasonable middle position, and faculty at large academic health systems in Philadelphia or Pittsburgh often earn toward the upper end of the distribution.
One important distinction: adjunct and part-time faculty positions, which are common entry points into academic nursing, typically pay on a per-course basis and fall well below these annualized figures. Full-time tenure-track and clinical faculty roles are where the wage ceiling becomes meaningful. If you are transitioning from a clinical role to a nursing educator role, comparing your current total compensation against the realistic full-time faculty range for your target institution type will give you a much more grounded picture than any single median figure.
Pennsylvania's Nursing Faculty Shortage
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Nurse Educator Job Growth in Pennsylvania
Pennsylvania's demand for nursing instructors is accelerating, fueled by a wave of faculty retirements, expanding pre-licensure enrollment, and state legislative efforts to address the nursing workforce shortage. Here is a snapshot of the projected outlook for postsecondary nursing instructors (SOC 25-1072) in the commonwealth.
Nurse Educator Licensing and Certification in Pennsylvania
Nurse educator certification has shifted from an optional credential to an expected standard in Pennsylvania, as schools increasingly prioritize formally prepared faculty.
Understanding NLN Certification Options
The National League for Nursing offers two primary certifications: Certified Nurse Educator (CNE) for academic faculty and Certified Academic Clinical Nurse Educator (CNEcl) for those teaching primarily in clinical settings. To understand which path fits your goals, review our CNE vs. CNEcl certification comparison. Eligibility for the CNE requires a master's or doctoral degree in nursing with a focus on nursing education, or completion of a post-master's certificate in nursing education, along with at least two years of full-time academic faculty experience. The CNEcl targets clinical educators and requires a master's or doctoral degree, plus two years of clinical teaching experience. Visit the NLN website at nln.org/certification for current exam fees, detailed eligibility pathways, and renewal requirements. Certification is valid for five years and requires continuing education for renewal.
Pennsylvania State Board of Nursing Faculty Requirements
The Pennsylvania State Board of Nursing (dos.pa.gov) sets minimum qualifications for nursing faculty teaching in prelicensure and graduate programs. Typically, faculty must hold a graduate degree in nursing; however, individuals with a bachelor's degree in nursing and current enrollment in a graduate program may teach under certain conditions. Clinical faculty must hold at least a bachelor's degree in nursing and have relevant clinical experience. The board also requires that faculty maintain an active, unencumbered Pennsylvania RN license. Administrative and program director roles often demand a doctoral degree, particularly for baccalaureate and higher-degree programs. Because regulations are updated periodically, always review the board's current professional nursing rules for the most recent language on faculty qualification waivers and exemptions.
Variability Across Nursing Programs
While state regulations provide a baseline, many nursing programs in Pennsylvania impose additional faculty expectations. For example, some universities require all full-time faculty to obtain CNE certification within the first few years of employment, or they may prefer candidates with a doctoral degree even for master's-level teaching roles. Clinical coordination duties might call for specific practice hours or specialty certifications. Directly contacting programs you are interested in working for is the best way to understand the precise blend of credentials, teaching experience, and scholarly activity they value. Program websites often list faculty bios that reveal the typical profiles of hired educators.
Staying Current with Pass Rates and Trends
The NLN publishes an annual certification report summarizing pass rates, candidate demographics, and emerging trends. You can explore historical CNE exam pass rate data to gauge the exam's rigor and your preparedness. While individual state-level pass rates are not always broken out, the national data offers a useful benchmark. For the most precise and up-to-date statistics, reach out to the NLN certification team directly through their website. This proactive step can inform your preparation timeline and resource planning.
Paying for Your Nurse Educator Degree in Pennsylvania
Funding a nurse educator MSN does not have to mean taking on five or six figures of debt, especially when you combine employer contributions, federal loan programs, and careful school selection.
What PA Schools' Debt Levels Actually Look Like
Program-level earnings and debt outcomes for these specific nurse educator tracks are not yet reported in federal data, so direct comparisons at the program level are not possible. At the institutional level, however, there is meaningful variation across Pennsylvania schools. Thomas Jefferson University graduates carry a median debt of roughly $14,700, the lowest among the PA schools profiled here. Millersville University of Pennsylvania sits around $23,500, Penn State near $25,000, Messiah University around $25,600, and Villanova University around $25,900. Robert Morris University graduates carry a median institutional debt near $27,000. Keep in mind these figures reflect all graduate borrowers at each institution, not nurse educator students specifically, so treat them as directional benchmarks rather than precise predictions.
On a standard 10-year repayment schedule, even the higher end of that range translates to a manageable monthly payment for most working RNs, particularly those who receive employer tuition help during school. If budget is your top concern, you may also want to explore affordable online nurse educator MSN programs across the country for comparison.
Employer Tuition Reimbursement
Many Pennsylvania health systems offer tuition reimbursement of $3,000 to $10,000 per year for employees pursuing graduate nursing degrees. UPMC, Penn Medicine, Jefferson Health, and Geisinger have all maintained graduate education benefits in recent years. If you are currently employed, check your HR portal before assuming you need to borrow the full cost of your program. Several PA schools, including Messiah University, explicitly support deferred billing arrangements so that reimbursement checks can arrive before your tuition is due.
The HRSA Nurse Faculty Loan Program
The federal Nurse Faculty Loan Program (NFLP), administered by the Health Resources and Services Administration, is one of the most powerful tools available to MSN nurse educator students and consistently underused.1 Here is how it works for the 2025-2026 award year:
- Maximum annual award: Up to $35,500, covering tuition, required fees, and sometimes books.2
- Interest rate: 3%, fixed during school and repayment.2
- Grace period: 9 months after graduation or leaving school.2
- Forgiveness: Up to 85% of the total loan balance can be cancelled for graduates who work full-time as nurse faculty at an accredited school for four consecutive years. The cancellation accrues at 20% in years one through three and 25% in year four.2
- Eligibility: U.S. citizens, nationals, or lawful permanent residents enrolled in an MSN or higher program with a nurse educator concentration, at a participating school, with a minimum 3.0 GPA.2
- FY2026 application deadline: June 29, 2026.1
Moravian University in Pennsylvania is an active NFLP participant for both 2025-2026 and 2026-2027, making it a strong option if NFLP access is a priority.3 If you are considering other schools, ask the financial aid office directly whether the program participates, since participation changes year to year and roughly 80 schools nationwide hold active NFLP grants in FY2025-2026.1 The ongoing nursing faculty shortage is a key reason federal funding for these loans continues to grow.
One important caution: if you receive NFLP funds and do not fulfill the four-year service requirement as a nurse faculty member, the remaining balance converts to a loan at the prevailing market interest rate.2
Pennsylvania-Specific Aid
Pennsylvania does not currently have a large statewide loan forgiveness program dedicated exclusively to nurse faculty. PHEAA (the Pennsylvania Higher Education Assistance Agency) does administer loan forgiveness for nurses working in high-need clinical settings, but those programs are not targeted at the faculty role. That makes the NFLP and employer reimbursement the two most reliable funding levers for most PA nurse educator students. Check PHEAA's current listings each academic year, since program availability shifts, and ask your school's financial aid office about any institution-specific scholarships for nursing education students.
Key Takeaway for Working Nurses
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Frequently Asked Questions About Nurse Educator Programs in PA
Below are the questions prospective nurse educators in Pennsylvania ask most often. Each answer draws on the program, salary, and certification details covered throughout this guide.
